Chapter 3. Computer Architecture
Note: The contents of this page were edited from the original for use in CS 31.
The CPU
To greatly simplify, a computer consists of a central processing unit (CPU) attached to memory. The figure above illustrates the general principle behind all computer operations.
The CPU executes instructions read from memory. There are two categories of instructions
-
Those that load values from memory into registers and store values from registers to memory.
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Those that operate on values stored in registers. For example adding, subtracting multiplying or dividing the values in two registers, performing bitwise operations (and, or, xor, etc) or performing other mathematical operations (square root, sin, cos, tan, etc).
So in the example we are simply adding 100 to a value stored in memory, and storing this new result back into memory.
Branching
Apart from loading or storing, the other important operation of a CPU is branching. Internally, the CPU records the memory address of the next instruction to be executed in the program counter (PC) (sometimes called the instruction pointer). Usually, the program counter is incremented to point to the next instruction sequentially; the branch instruction will usually check if a specific register is zero or if a flag is set and, if so, will modify the PC to a different address. Thus the next instruction to execute will be from a different part of program; this is how loops and decision statements work.
For example, a statement like if
(x==0) might be implemented by finding the
or of two registers, one
holding x and the other zero;
if the result is zero the comparison is true (i.e. all bits of
x were zero) and the body of
the statement should be taken, otherwise branch past the body
code.
Cycles
We are all familiar with the speed of the computer, given in Megahertz or Gigahertz (millions or thousands of millions cycles per second). This is called the clock speed since it is the speed that an internal clock within the computer pulses.
The pulses are used within the processor to keep it internally synchronised. On each tick or pulse another operation can be started; think of the clock like the person beating the drum to keep the rower's oars in sync.
Fetch, Decode, Execute, Store
Executing a single instruction consists of a particular cycle of events; fetching, decoding, executing and storing.
For example, to do the
add instruction above the CPU
must
-
Fetch : get the instruction from memory into the processor.
-
Decode : internally decode what it has to do (in this case add).
-
Execute : take the values from the registers, actually add them together
-
Store : store the result back into another register, or perhaps memory.
Looking inside a CPU
Internally the CPU has many different sub components that perform each of the above steps, and generally they can all happen independently of each other. This is analogous to a physical production line, where there are many stations where each step has a particular task to perform. Once done it can pass the results to the next station and take a new input to work on.
Figure 3.2, “Inside the CPU” shows a very simple block diagram illustrating some of the main parts of a modern CPU.
You can see the instructions come in and are decoded by the processor. The CPU has two main types of registers, those for integer calculations and those for floating point calculations. Floating point is a way of representing numbers with a decimal place in binary form, and is handled differently within the CPU.
A register file is the collective name for the registers inside the CPU. Below that we have the parts of the CPU which really do all the work.
We said that processors are either loading or storing a value into a register or from a register into memory, or doing some operation on values in registers.
The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) is the heart of the CPU operation. It takes values in registers and performs any of the multitude of operations the CPU is capable of. All modern processors have a number of ALUs so each can be working independently. In fact, processors such as the Pentium have both fast and slow ALUs; the fast ones are smaller (so you can fit more on the CPU) but can do only the most common operations, slow ALUs can do all operations but are bigger.
The Address Generation Unit (AGU) handles talking to cache and main memory to get values into the registers for the ALU to operate on and get values out of registers back into main memory.
Floating point registers have the same concepts, but use slightly different terminology for their components.