Programmers need to consider alignment especially when creating structs. Whilst the compiler knows the alignment rules for the architecture it is building for, at times programmers can cause suboptimal behaviour.

The C99 standard only says that structures will be ordered in memory in the same order as they are specified in the declaration, and that in an array of structures all elements will be the same size.

  1 
                  $ cat struct.c
    #include <stdio.h>
    
  5 struct a_struct {
            char char_one;
            char char_two;
            int int_one;
    };
 10 
    int main(void)
    {
    
            struct a_struct s;
 15 
            printf("%p : s.char_one\n" \
                   "%p : s.char_two\n" \
                   "%p : s.int_one\n", &s.char_one,
                   &s.char_two, &s.int_one);
 20 
            return 0;
    
    }
    
 25 $ gcc -o struct struct.c
    
    $ gcc -fpack-struct -o struct-packed struct.c
    
    $ ./struct
 30 0x7fdf6798 : s.char_one
    0x7fdf6799 : s.char_two
    0x7fdf679c : s.int_one
    
    $ ./struct-packed
 35 0x7fcd2778 : s.char_one
    0x7fcd2779 : s.char_two
    0x7fcd277a : s.int_one
    
                

In the example above, we contrive a structure that has two bytes (chars followed by a 4 byte integer. The compiler pads the structure as below.

Figure 7.2. Alignment

In the other example we direct the compiler not to pad structures and correspondingly we can see that the integer starts directly after the two chars.

We talked previously about aliasing in the cache, and how several addresses may map to the same cache line. Programmers need to be sure that when they write their programs they do not cause bouncing of cache lines.

This situation occurs when a program constantly accesses two areas of memory that map to the same cache line. This effectively wastes the cache line, as it gets loaded in, used for a short time and then must be kicked out and the other cache line loaded into the same place in the cache.

Obviously if this situation repeats the performance will be significantly reduced. The situation would be releaved if the confilicting data were organised in slightly different ways to avoid the cache line conflict.

One possible way to detect this sort of situation is profiling. When you profile your code you "watch" it to analyse what code paths are taken and how long they take to execute. With profile guided optimisation (PGO) the compiler can put special extra bits of code in the first binary it builds, which runs and makes a record of the branches taken, etc. You can then recompile the binary with the extra information to possibly create a better performing binary. Otherwise the programmer can look at the output of the profile and possibly detect situations such as cache line bouncing. (XXX somewhere else?)

What the compiler has done above is traded off using some extra memory to gain a speed improvement in running our code. The compiler knows the rules of the architecture and can make decisions about the best way to align data, possibly by trading off small amounts of wasted memory for increased (or perhaps even just correct) performance.

Consequently as a programmer you should never make assumptions about the way variables and data will be layed out by the compiler. To do so is not portable, as a different architecture may have different rules and the compiler may make different decisions based on expicit commands or optimisation levels.

Thus, as a C programmer you need to be familiar with what you can assume about what the compiler will do and what may be variable. What exactly you can assume and can not assume is detailed in the C99 standard; if you are programming in C it is certainly worth the investment in becoming familiar with the rules to avoid writing non-portable or buggy code.

  1 
                  $ cat stack.c
    #include <stdio.h>
    
  5 struct a_struct {
            int a;
            int b;
    };
    
 10 int main(void)
    {
            int i;
            struct a_struct s;
            printf("%p\n%p\ndiff %ld\n", &i, &s, (unsigned long)&s - (unsigned long)&i);
 15         return 0;
    }
    $ gcc-3.3 -Wall -o stack-3.3 ./stack.c
    $ gcc-4.0 -o stack-4.0 stack.c
    
 20 $ ./stack-3.3
    0x60000fffffc2b510
    0x60000fffffc2b520
    diff 16
    
 25 $ ./stack-4.0
    0x60000fffff89b520
    0x60000fffff89b524
    diff 4
    
 30             

In the example above, taken from an Itanium machine, we can see that the padding and aligment of the stack has changed considerably between gcc versions. This type of thing is to be expected and must be considered by the programmer.

Generally you should ensure that you do not make assumptions about the size of types or alignment rules.

There are a few common sequences of code that deal with alignment; generally most programs will consider it in some ways. You may see these "code idioms" in many places outside the kernel when dealing with programs that deal with chunks of data in some form or another, so it is worth investigating.

We can take some examples from the Linux kernel, which often has to deal with alignment of pages of memory within the system.

  1 
                  [ include/asm-ia64/page.h ]
    
    /*
  5  * PAGE_SHIFT determines the actual kernel page size.
     */
    #if defined(CONFIG_IA64_PAGE_SIZE_4KB)
    # define PAGE_SHIFT     12
    #elif defined(CONFIG_IA64_PAGE_SIZE_8KB)
 10 # define PAGE_SHIFT     13
    #elif defined(CONFIG_IA64_PAGE_SIZE_16KB)
    # define PAGE_SHIFT     14
    #elif defined(CONFIG_IA64_PAGE_SIZE_64KB)
    # define PAGE_SHIFT     16
 15 #else
    # error Unsupported page size!
    #endif
    
    #define PAGE_SIZE               (__IA64_UL_CONST(1) << PAGE_SHIFT)
 20 #define PAGE_MASK               (~(PAGE_SIZE - 1))
    #define PAGE_ALIGN(addr)        (((addr) + PAGE_SIZE - 1) & PAGE_MASK)
    
                

Above we can see that there are a number of different options for page sizes within the kernel, ranging from 4KB through 64KB.

The PAGE_SIZE macro is fairly self explanatory, giving the current page size selected within the system by shifting a value of 1 by the shift number given (remember, this is the equivalent of saying 2n where n is the PAGE_SHIFT).

Next we have a definition for PAGE_MASK. The PAGE_MASK allows us to find just those bits that are within the current page, that is the offset of an address within its page.

XXX continue short discussion